Playing in the fourth ODI against Sri Lanka in Kolkota, Sharma smashed a massive 264 to eclipse compatriot Virender Sehwag's previous record of 219, scored against West Indies in 2011.
Sharma led his side to 404-4 in a 173-ball knock included 32 fours and nine sixes, BBC reports.
The right-handed opener was caught at long-off from the final ball of the innings.
"I'm not really tired. I was ready to bat another 50 overs," said Rohit. "Once I got to 50, I knew I had to convert because it was a good batting wicket.
"We wanted to get a big score and that made me stay there as long as possible.''
Before 2010, no batsman had passed 200 in 2961 previous one-day internationals, but Rohit's effort is the fourth double hundred in four years. They have all have been made by India batsmen in India.
Sachin Tendulkar became the first man to reach 200 against South Africa, with Sehwag beating that record a year later.
Rohit then made 209 against Australia at Bangalore in November 2013.
